Do you take an ice bath or practice cold water immersion? In advance of writing our own article on this subject, we are trying to stay on top of the studies - to see where the evidence points. Where does the evidence lead us?
Reducing muscle soreness, yes.
Reducing muscle growth, also yes.
Making you feel great for the rest of the day, for some... yes.
Ice baths can help reduce pain and muscle soreness post-exercise, they do not significantly enhance muscle recovery or reduce muscle damage markers. More importantly, cold water immersion appears to blunt muscle hypertrophy, hindering muscle growth. If you are seeking to maximise muscle growth, you might need to reconsider the frequent use of ice baths as a recovery strategy.
Please note, if you are going to try ice bathing, cold shock can be dangerous, lethal in fact. Do it under supervision. As ever, please talk to your doctor or medical practitioner most familiar with your medical history before implementing any changes in diet, exercise or lifestyle, especially if you are under treatment.
Feel free to browse the studies below, there are active links within each citation. Note that the science has evolved, over time. If you see your favourite ice bath venue citing studies from - say - 2012, they are likely not up to date. If you have relevant studies to add, please include them in the comments box at bottom of page.
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Note: meta-analyses and systematic reviews in blue.
2024
Batista NP, de Carvalho FA, Rodrigues CRD, Micheletti JK, Machado AF, Pastre CM. Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on performance and perceptive outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2024 Aug;124(8):2439-2450. doi: 10.1007/s00421-024-05462-x. Epub 2024 Mar 28. PMID: 38548939; PMCID: PMC11322250.
Barwood MJ, Eglin C, Hills SP, Johnston N, Massey H, McMorris T, Tipton MJ, Wakabayashi H, Webster L. Habituation of the cold shock response: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Therm Biol. 2024 Jan;119:103775. doi: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103775. Epub 2023 Dec 27. PMID: 38211547.
Almahayni O, Hammond L. Does the Wim Hof Method have a beneficial impact on physiological and psychological outcomes in healthy and non-healthy participants? A systematic review. PLoS One. 2024 Mar 13;19(3):e0286933. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286933. PMID: 38478473; PMCID: PMC10936795.
Piñero, A., Burke, R., Augustin, F., Mohan, A. E., DeJesus, K., Sapuppo, M., Weisenthal, M., Coleman, M., Patroklos Androulakis‐Korakakis, Grgic, J., Swinton, P. A., & Schoenfeld, B. J. (2024). Throwing cold water on muscle growth: A systematic review with meta‐analysis of the effects of postexercise cold water immersion on resistance training‐induced hypertrophy. European Journal of Sport Science. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsc.12074
2023
Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12. PMID: 36375602.
Moore E, Fuller JT, Bellenger CR, Saunders S, Halson SL, Broatch JR, Buckley JD. Effects of Cold-Water Immersion Compared with Other Recovery Modalities on Athletic Performance Following Acute Strenuous Exercise in Physically Active Participants: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression. Sports Med. 2023 Mar;53(3):687-705. doi: 10.1007/s40279-022-01800-1. Epub 2022 Dec 17. PMID: 36527593.
Batista NP, de Carvalho FA, Machado AF, Micheletti JK, Pastre CM. What Parameters Influence the Effect of Cold-Water Immersion on Muscle Soreness? An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clin J Sport Med. 2023 Jan 1;33(1):13-25. doi: 10.1097/JSM.0000000000001081. Epub 2022 Nov 11. PMID: 36399666.
Grgic J. Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: a meta-analysis. Eur J Sport Sci. 2023 Mar;23(3):372-380. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2033851. Epub 2022 Feb 20. PMID: 35068365.
Xiao F, Kabachkova AV, Jiao L, Zhao H, Kapilevich LV. Effects of cold water immersion after exercise on fatigue recovery and exercise performance--meta analysis. Front Physiol. 2023 Jan 20;14:1006512. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1006512. PMID: 36744038; PMCID: PMC9896520.
Scott MC, Fuller S. The Effects of Intermittent Cold Exposure on Adipose Tissue. Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Dec 19;25(1):46. doi: 10.3390/ijms25010046. PMID: 38203217; PMCID: PMC10778965.
Ketelhut S, Querciagrossa D, Bisang X, Metry X, Borter E, Nigg CR. The effectiveness of the Wim Hof method on cardiac autonomic function, blood pressure, arterial compliance, and different psychological parameters. Sci Rep. 2023 Oct 16;13(1):17517. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-44902-0. PMID: 37845341; PMCID: PMC10579249.
Coertjens M, Coertjens PC, Tartaruga MP, Gorski T, Lima-Silva AE, Carminatti LJ, Beyer PO, de Almeida APV, Geremia JM, Peyré-Tartaruga LA, Kruel LFM. Energetic responses of head-out water immersion at different temperatures during post-exercise recovery and its consequence on anaerobic mechanical power. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2023 Dec;123(12):2813-2831. doi: 10.1007/s00421-023-05265-6. Epub 2023 Jul 1. PMID: 37393218.
Yankouskaya A, Williamson R, Stacey C, Totman JJ, Massey H. Short-Term Head-Out Whole-Body Cold-Water Immersion Facilitates Positive Affect and Increases Interaction between Large-Scale Brain Networks. Biology (Basel). 2023 Jan 29;12(2):211. doi: 10.3390/biology12020211. PMID: 36829490; PMCID: PMC9953392.
Reed EL, Chapman CL, Whittman EK, Park TE, Larson EA, Kaiser BW, Comrada LN, Wiedenfeld Needham K, Halliwill JR, Minson CT. Cardiovascular and mood responses to an acute bout of cold water immersion. J Therm Biol. 2023 Dec;118:103727. doi: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2023.103727. Epub 2023 Oct 14. PMID: 37866096; PMCID: PMC10842018.
Horgan BG, Halson SL, Drinkwater EJ, West NP, Tee N, Alcock RD, Chapman DW, Haff GG. No effect of repeated post-resistance exercise cold or hot water immersion on in-season body composition and performance responses in academy rugby players: a randomised controlled cross-over design. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2023 Feb;123(2):351-359. doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05075-2. Epub 2022 Oct 25. PMID: 36284024; PMCID: PMC9895015.
Tipton M, Eglin C. Non-freezing cold injury: A little-known big problem. Exp Physiol. 2023 Mar;108(3):329-330. doi: 10.1113/EP091139. Epub 2023 Feb 20. PMID: 36807674; PMCID: PMC10103876.
2022
Moore E, Fuller JT, Buckley JD, Saunders S, Halson SL, Broatch JR, Bellenger CR. Impact of Cold-Water Immersion Compared with Passive Recovery Following a Single Bout of Strenuous Exercise on Athletic Performance in Physically Active Participants: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis and Meta-regression. Sports Med. 2022 Jul;52(7):1667-1688. doi: 10.1007/s40279-022-01644-9. Epub 2022 Feb 14. PMID: 35157264; PMCID: PMC9213381.
Choo HC, Lee M, Yeo V, Poon W, Ihsan M. The effect of cold water immersion on the recovery of physical performance revisited: A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Sports Sci. 2022 Dec;40(23):2608-2638. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2178872. Epub 2023 Mar 2. PMID: 36862831.
Esperland D, de Weerd L, Mercer JB. Health effects of voluntary exposure to cold water - a continuing subject of debate. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2022 Dec;81(1):2111789. doi: 10.1080/22423982.2022.2111789. PMID: 36137565; PMCID: PMC9518606.
Faid T, Van Gordon W, Taylor EC. Breathing Exercises, Cold-Water Immersion, and Meditation: Mind-Body Practices Lead to Reduced Stress and Enhanced Well-Being. Adv Mind Body Med. 2022 Summer;36(3):12-20. PMID: 36308505.
Chaillou T, Treigyte V, Mosely S, Brazaitis M, Venckunas T, Cheng AJ. Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise. Sports Med Open. 2022 Mar 7;8(1):37. doi: 10.1186/s40798-022-00428-9. PMID: 35254558; PMCID: PMC8901468.
Esperland D, de Weerd L, Mercer JB. Health effects of voluntary exposure to cold water - a continuing subject of debate. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2022 Dec;81(1):2111789. doi: 10.1080/22423982.2022.2111789. PMID: 36137565; PMCID: PMC9518606.
Kelly JS, Bird E. Improved mood following a single immersion in cold water. Lifestyle Med. 2022; 3:e53. https://doi.org/10.1002/lim2.53
Zhang W, Ren S, Zheng X. Effect of 3 min whole-body and lower limb cold water immersion on subsequent performance of agility, sprint, and intermittent endurance exercise. Front Physiol. 2022 Oct 10;13:981773. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.981773. PMID: 36299255; PMCID: PMC9589280.
2021
Malta ES, Dutra YM, Broatch JR, Bishop DJ, Zagatto AM. The Effects of Regular Cold-Water Immersion Use on Training-Induced Changes in Strength and Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2021 Jan;51(1):161-174. doi: 10.1007/s40279-020-01362-0. PMID: 33146851.
Bartley JM, Stearns RL, Muñoz CX, Nolan JK, Radom-Aizik S, Maresh CM, Casa DJ, Zaldivar FP, Haddad F, Ganio M, Lee EC. Effects of cold water immersion on circulating inflammatory markers at the Kona Ironman World Championship. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2021 Jul;46(7):719-726. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0602. Epub 2021 Jan 28. PMID: 33507839.
Demori I, Piccinno T, Saverino D, Luzzo E, Ottoboni S, Serpico D, Chiera M, Giuria R. Effects of winter sea bathing on psychoneuroendocrinoimmunological parameters. Explore (NY). 2021 Mar-Apr;17(2):122-126. doi: 10.1016/j.explore.2020.02.004. Epub 2020 Feb 26. PMID: 32224255.
Milda Eimonte, Henrikas Paulauskas, Laura Daniuseviciute, Nerijus Eimantas, Astra Vitkauskiene, Gintare Dauksaite, Rima Solianik & Marius Brazaitis (2021) Residual effects of short-term whole-body cold-water immersion on the cytokine profile, white blood cell count, and blood markers of stress, International Journal of Hyperthermia, 38:1, 696-707, DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2021.1915504
Chauvineau M, Pasquier F, Guyot V, Aloulou A, Nedelec M. Effect of the Depth of Cold Water Immersion on Sleep Architecture and Recovery Among Well-Trained Male Endurance Runners. Front Sports Act Living. 2021 Mar 31;3:659990. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.659990. PMID: 33870188; PMCID: PMC8044518.
Ihsan M, Abbiss CR, Allan R. Adaptations to Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion: Friend, Foe, or Futile? Front Sports Act Living. 2021 Jul 16;3:714148. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.714148. PMID: 34337408; PMCID: PMC8322530.
Petersen AC, Fyfe JJ. Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Effects on Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training and the Underlying Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review. Front Sports Act Living. 2021 Apr 8;3:660291. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.660291. PMID: 33898988; PMCID: PMC8060572.
Poppendieck W, Wegmann M, Hecksteden A, Darup A, Schimpchen J, Skorski S, Ferrauti A, Kellmann M, Pfeiffer M, Meyer T. Does Cold-Water Immersion After Strength Training Attenuate Training Adaptation? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2021 Feb 1;16(2):304-310. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0965. Epub 2020 Nov 20. PMID: 33217726.
2020
Peake JM, Markworth JF, Cumming KT, Aas SN, Roberts LA, Raastad T, Cameron-Smith D, Figueiredo VC. The Effects of Cold Water Immersion and Active Recovery on Molecular Factors That Regulate Growth and Remodeling of Skeletal Muscle After Resistance Exercise. Front Physiol. 2020 Jun 30;11:737. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00737. PMID: 32695024; PMCID: PMC7339943.
Fuchs CJ, Kouw IWK, Churchward-Venne TA, Smeets JSJ, Senden JM, Lichtenbelt WDVM, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJC. Postexercise cooling impairs muscle protein synthesis rates in recreational athletes. J Physiol. 2020 Feb;598(4):755-772. doi: 10.1113/JP278996. Epub 2019 Dec 29. PMID: 31788800; PMCID: PMC7028023.
Knechtle B, Waśkiewicz Z, Sousa CV, Hill L, Nikolaidis PT. Cold Water Swimming-Benefits and Risks: A Narrative Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Dec 2;17(23):8984. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17238984. PMID: 33276648; PMCID: PMC7730683.
2019
de Freitas VH, Ramos SP, Bara-Filho MG, Freitas DGS, Coimbra DR, Cecchini R, Guarnier FA, Nakamura FY. Effect of Cold Water Immersion Performed on Successive Days on Physical Performance, Muscle Damage, and Inflammatory, Hormonal, and Oxidative Stress Markers in Volleyball Players. J Strength Cond Res. 2019 Feb;33(2):502-513. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001884. PMID: 28277426.
Fyfe JJ, Broatch JR, Trewin AJ, Hanson ED, Argus CK, Garnham AP, Halson SL, Polman RC, Bishop DJ, Petersen AC. Cold water immersion attenuates anabolic signaling and skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy, but not strength gain, following whole-body resistance training. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2019 Nov 1;127(5):1403-1418. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00127.2019. Epub 2019 Sep 12. PMID: 31513450.
Farstad DJ, Dunn JA. Cold Water Immersion Syndrome and Whitewater Recreation Fatalities. Wilderness Environ Med. 2019 Sep;30(3):321-327. doi: 10.1016/j.wem.2019.03.005. Epub 2019 Jun 6. PMID: 31178366.
Ahokas EK, Ihalainen JK, Kyröläinen H, Mero AA. Effects of Water Immersion Methods on Postexercise Recovery of Physical and Mental Performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2019 Jun;33(6):1488-1495. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000003134. PMID: 31008862.
2018
Broatch JR, Petersen A, Bishop DJ. The Influence of Post-Exercise Cold-Water Immersion on Adaptive Responses to Exercise: A Review of the Literature. Sports Med. 2018 Jun;48(6):1369-1387. doi: 10.1007/s40279-018-0910-8. PMID: 29627884.
2017
Higgins TR, Greene DA, Baker MK. Effects of Cold Water Immersion and Contrast Water Therapy for Recovery From Team Sport: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2017 May;31(5):1443-1460. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001559. PMID: 27398915.
Peake JM, Roberts LA, Figueiredo VC, Egner I, Krog S, Aas SN, Suzuki K, Markworth JF, Coombes JS, Cameron-Smith D, Raastad T. The effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on inflammation and cell stress responses in human skeletal muscle after resistance exercise. J Physiol. 2017 Feb 1;595(3):695-711. doi: 10.1113/JP272881. Epub 2016 Nov 13. PMID: 27704555; PMCID: PMC5285720.
Stephens JM, Halson S, Miller J, Slater GJ, Askew CD. Cold-Water Immersion for Athletic Recovery: One Size Does Not Fit All. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2017 Jan;12(1):2-9. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0095. Epub 2016 Aug 24. PMID: 27294485.
Tipton MJ, Collier N, Massey H, Corbett J, Harper M. Cold water immersion: kill or cure? Exp Physiol. 2017 Nov 1;102(11):1335-1355. doi: 10.1113/EP086283. Epub 2017 Sep 21. PMID: 28833689.
2016
Ihsan M, Watson G, Abbiss CR. What are the Physiological Mechanisms for Post-Exercise Cold Water Immersion in the Recovery from Prolonged Endurance and Intermittent Exercise? Sports Med. 2016 Aug;46(8):1095-109. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0483-3. PMID: 26888646.
Buijze GA, Sierevelt IN, van der Heijden BC, Dijkgraaf MG, Frings-Dresen MH. The Effect of Cold Showering on Health and Work: A Randomized Controlled Trial. PLoS One. 2016 Sep 15;11(9):e0161749. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161749. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2018 Aug 2;13(8):e0201978. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201978. PMID: 27631616; PMCID: PMC5025014.
2015
Castellani JW, Tipton MJ. Cold Stress Effects on Exposure Tolerance and Exercise Performance. Compr Physiol. 2015 Dec 15;6(1):443-69. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c140081. PMID: 26756639.
Roberts LA, Raastad T, Markworth JF, Figueiredo VC, Egner IM, Shield A, Cameron-Smith D, Coombes JS, Peake JM. Post-exercise cold water immersion attenuates acute anabolic signalling and long-term adaptations in muscle to strength training. J Physiol. 2015 Sep 15;593(18):4285-301. doi: 10.1113/JP270570. Epub 2015 Aug 13. PMID: 26174323; PMCID: PMC4594298.
Roberts LA, Muthalib M, Stanley J, Lichtwark G, Nosaka K, Coombes JS, Peake JM. Effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on hemodynamics and recovery of muscle strength following resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2015 Aug 15;309(4):R389-98. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00151.2015. Epub 2015 Jun 10. PMID: 26062633.
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